How Do I Know If My Computer Is Hd

Chronology.
http://experimentacionenhumanos.blogspot.com/2006/10/cronologa.html

The Tuskegee Experiment.
http://experimentacionenhumanos.blogspot.com/2006/10/el-experimento-tuskegee.html

Nazi experiments.
http://experimentacionenhumanos.blogspot.com/2006/10/los-experimentos-nazis.html

Project MK-ULTRA.
http://experimentacionenhumanos.blogspot.com/2006/10/el-proyecto-mk-ultra_14.html

human radiation experiments.
http://experimentacionenhumanos.blogspot.com/2006/10/experimentos-humanos-de-radiacin.html

Zimbardo Experiment.
http://experimentacionenhumanos.blogspot.com/2006/10/el-experimento-zimbardo.html

Epilogue.
Http://experimentacionenhumanos.blogspot.com/2006/10/eplogo.html

References.
http://experimentacionenhumanos.blogspot.com/2006/10/referencias.html

Sample 60 Birthday Speeches For A Brother

1931. Dr. Cornelius Rhoads, under the auspices of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Investigations, infects human subjects with cancer cells. Later, provides the facilities of the Department of Biological War U.S. army in Maryland, Utah and Panama, and is called to collaborate in the Atomic Energy Commission. While he is there, he begins a series of experiments involving exposure of American soldiers and civilian hospital patients to radiation effects.

1932. The Tuskegee Experiment began. A 399 black men diagnosed with syphilis are not informed of his condition, are denied treatment, and instead, are used as guinea pigs with the aim of studying the natural history and symptoms of the disease. They all died as a result of the effects of syphilis. Never told his family that could be treated.

1935. The Pellagra Incident. After an undetermined number of humans killed by the effects of Pellagra in the span of two décadas, el Servicio de Salud Pública de los Estados Unidos finalmente actúa para detener la enfermedad. El director de la Agencia admite que se sabía desde hacía 20 años que la Pelagra es causada por la deficiencia de Niacina, pero que no se actúo rápidamente debido a que la mayor parte de las muertes ocurrían en poblaciones afroamericanas azotadas por la pobreza.

1936. Después de que en 1931, Japón ocupara todo el nordeste de China, en 1936 entra en operación la “Unidad de Prevención Epidémica y Purificación de Agua del Ejercito de Kuantung”, que mas tarde sería conocida simplemente como Unidad 731. Este gigantesco complejo de edificios de more than six square kilometers (It had more than 150 buildings and was the center of biological research world's largest), was actually a secret military unit commanded by medical experimentation Imperial Japanese Navy. Among the atrocities that Japanese doctors performed (Led by Dr. Shiro Ishii) from the opening of the Unit until its closure in 1945, is conducting extensive vivisection without the use of anesthetic agents, exposure of prisoners to the explosion grenades and flamethrowers with the goal of developing better therapeutic procedures for the Japanese soldiers' wounds, deprivation food and water, exposure to lethal doses of X-rays, electrical burns, high pressure, low temperatures and centrifugal forces, injection of animal blood and air bubbles to the experimental subjects, poisoning the drinking water from local agents chemicals and infectious, and the exposure of thousands of human beings to the bubonic plague, smallpox, cholera, botulism, Anthrax, typhoid and dysentery, as part of the activities of chemical and bacteriological investigation of the Japanese army. Unit 731 was just one of 26 similar laboratories that Japan settled in China during the occupation. Many scientists involved in Unit 731 successfully continued their careers after it ceased operations after the Second World War. In 1946, the United States government offered amnesty and guarantees of non-prosecution in exchange for sharing information. It is estimated that between 3,000 and 200,000 Chinese, Koreans and Mongolians died directly or indirectly by the experiments of Unit 731.

1939. On several occasions between September 1939 and April 1945, Nazi doctors conducted experiments in the camps of Sachsenhausen and Natzweiler, in order to investigate the most effective treatment to treat wounds caused by Lost gas, a poison commonly known as mustard gas.

1940. 400 prisoners in Chicago are infected with Malaria in order to study the effects of new experimental drugs to combat this disease. Nazi doctors later cite this case as a plea for his actions during the Holocaust, during the development of the Nuremberg trials.

1941. Nazi sterilization experiments were conducted from March 1941 until January 1945 in the camps at Auschwitz and Ravensbrück. The purpose of these experiments was to develop a method that was able to sterilize millions of people in the least amount of time and with minimal effort.

1941. In the concentration camp of Buchenwald, numerous healthy inmates were deliberately infected with typhus bacteria. Over 90% of the victims died as a result. The Nazi doctors were investigating the effectiveness of some vaccines.

1942. Dr. Sigmund Rascher the Nazi Party, describes the results of the infamous freezing experiments conducted in concentration camps at Birkenau, Dachau and Auschwitz, at a medical conference entitled "Medical Problems arising from sea and winter."

1942. At the beginning of 1942, Several prisoners of the Dachau concentration camp were tortured in order for the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) might find the human body's ability to adapt and survive at high altitudes.

1942. From July 1942 until September 1943, German physicians conducted experiments in Ravensbrück concentration camp to investigate the effectiveness of the sulfonamide. Inflicted wounds in experimental subjects were infected with esptreptococos, gas gangrene and tetanus.

1942. From February 1942 until April 1945, numerous experiments were performed at the Dachau concentration camp by doctors Nazis, in order to investigate immunization in the treatment of Malaria.

1942. Military Departments Chemical and Bacteriological Warfare begin a series of experiments with mustard gas on about 4,000 items in service. The experiments continued until 1945 and made use of Seventh Day Adventists who chose to become guinea pigs in active service at the front of the army.

1942. From September 1942 to December 1943, German physicians conducted experiments in Ravensbrück concentration camp in order to study the regeneration of bone, muscle and nerve and bone transplantation from one person to another.

1943. On May 24, 1943, Dr. Josef Mengele - known as the "Angel of Death" - arrives at Auschwitz Concentration Camp. During the next 21 months, leading some of the most infamous and cruel experiments on human beings of whom record.

1943. Between December 1943 and October 1944, Nazi medical experiments conducted in the Buchenwald concentration camp to investigate the effects of various types of poisons in humans.

1943. In response to the Japanese Program large-scale chemical and bacteriological war, the United States begins a series of investigations on biological weapons at Fort Detrick, MD.

1943. From June 1943 until January 1945, experiments were conducted in the camps of Sachsenhausen and Natzweiler to investigate the causes of epidemic hepatitis and the use of inoculations for treatment. Experimental subjects were deliberately infected German doctors, and some died as a result of the experiments.

1943. From November 1943 until January 1944, experiments were performed in the concentration camp at Buchenwald to test the effect of various pharmacological preparations on phosphorus burns. These burns were inflicted by the Nazis in the experimental subject material phosphorus incendiary bombs.

1944. The U.S. Navy uses human beings to test gas masks and protective clothing. The subjects were locked in a gas chamber and exposed to mustard gas.

1944. From July 1944 until September 1944, Nazi doctors conducted experiments in the Dachau camp in order to test various methods to purify sea water. Some of the participating subjects were deprived of all food and were provided solely seawater chemically processed.

1945. Project Paperclip is initiated. The State Department of U.S. Army Intelligence and CIA begin to recruit Nazi scientists who offered diplomatic immunity and secret identities in exchange for work on classified government projects in the United States.

1945. Atomic Energy Commission U.S. implements "Program F". It is the largest U.S. study on the health effects caused by fluoride, which was one of the key components in the manufacture of atomic weapons. Fluoride, one of the most toxic chemicals known human health, causes marked adverse effects on the central nervous system. Much of the information is classified in the name of national security, in order to avoid legal proceedings arising hindered the manufacture of atomic weapons.

1946. Patient care hospitals for veterans are used as guinea pigs in medical experiments. In order to allay suspicions, the order is given replace the word "experiments" for "research" and "comments" all medical study conducted in veterans hospitals located in United States.

1946. The U.S. government offers to the Japanese doctor Shiro Ishii, and other scientists at the infamous Unit 731, judicial immunity and other guarantees in exchange for exchanging information on Japanese expertise in the field of chemical and bacteriological warfare. In this way, Shiro Ishii (Considered by some as the father of biological warfare) is never prosecuted for his crimes against humanity and died in 1959, because of laryngeal cancer.

1947. Colonel EE Kirkpatrick of the Atomic Energy Commission, the U.S. issues a secret document (Document 07075001, January 8.1947), stating that the agency would begin administering intravenous doses of radioactive substances to human beings.

1947. The first experiments with mind control on record which was carried out in 1947 as part of a U.S. Navy project called Operation CHATTER, seeking "speech-inducing drug" for use in the interrogation of "personal enemy or subversive."

1947. The CIA began to study the potential use of LSD as a weapon to American intelligence services. Humans (Both civilian and military) are used as experimental subjects, with and without their knowledge.

1950. The Department of Defense begins plans to detonate nuclear weapons in desert areas with the aim of monitoring medical problems and mortality rates of nearby residents.

1950. In an experiment that tried to determine how susceptible an American city would be a biological attack, the U.S. Navy sprayed a cloud of bacteria over San Francisco Bay. Monitoring devices are placed throughout the city in order to assess the extent of infection. Several residents ill with symptoms similar to pneumonia.

1951. The Department of Defense U.S. begins testing outdoor pathogenic bacteria and viruses. The tests are prolonged until 1969, and there is concern that residents of adjacent areas have been exposed.

1953. U.S. Military released clouds of zinc cadmium sulfide over Winnipeg, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Fort Wayne, the Monocacy River Valley in Maryland, and Leesburg, Virginia. Its purpose is to determine how efficiently they could disperse chemical agents.

1953. joint experiments are conducted between the Navy, the Navy and the CIA in which tens of thousands of people in New York and San Francisco are exposed to the airborne germs Serratia marcescens and Bacillus glogigii.

1953. The CIA begins Project MKULTRA. This research program lasting 11 years designed to produce and test drugs and biological agents that could be used to gain control of the mind and behavior modification. Six of the subprojects involved testing the agents on human beings without knowledge of their participation in the experiment.

1953. Ronald Maddison, an engineer 20 years of age belonging to the British Royal Air Force, died from the effects of Sarin gas on military installations Chemical Warfare Porton Down in Wiltshire. A Maddison said he would participate in a test "cure the common cold." Ten days after his death, opened a secret investigation that initially classified the incident as an accidental death. In 2004, the investigation was reopened and after 64 days of inquiry, a jury ruled that Maddison was killed by the "application of a nerve agent in a non-therapeutic experiment."

1954. American scientists conduct research on exposure to radioactive fallout in the Marshall Islands citizens, after the Castle Bravo nuclear test. The blasts occurred in the airspace of Rongelap Atoll and residents were exposed to serious levels of radiation (above 180 rads) 236 people were exposed, some of whom developed severe disease following radiation. At least one died.

1955. The CIA, in an experiment to test their ability to infect human populations with biological agents, releases a bacteria from military arsenals to Tampa Bay, FL

1955. chemical corporations continue research on LSD, studying its potential use as a chemical incapacitating agent. More than 1,000 Americans participate in the tests, which continue until 1958.

1956. U.S. military releases mosquitoes infected with Yellow Fever over Savannah, Ga and Avon Park, Fla. After each test, Army agents examined the victims in search of possible effects, posing as official U.S. Health.

1958. in laboratories of the U.S. Navy, LSD is tested on 95 volunteers in search of its possible effects about intelligence.

1960. The assistant chief of U.S. Naval Intelligence (ACSI) authorizes LSD research in Eastern Europe and Asia. The European population are testing the code name Project Third Chance, for their part, Asians are testing the code name Project Derby Hat.

1961. Stanley Milgram, a psychologist at Yale University, carried out an experiment which seeks to measure the willingness of human beings to follow orders that go against their own conscience. He was ordered to ordinary people applying what they thought were fatal electric shocks to an actor hired by the investigators to impersonate the victim role.

1965. The CIA and the Department of Defense begin Project MKSEARCH, a program to develop the ability to manipulate human behavior through the use of drugs with mind-altering effects.

1965. Convicted the Holmesburg State Prison in Philadelphia are exposed to dioxin, the highly toxic chemical component of Agent Orange used in Vietnam. The men are later examined for cancer development, indicating that he suspected that Agent Orange was a carcinogen for a long time ago.

1966. The CIA begins MKOFTEN Project, a program to test the toxicological effects of certain drugs on humans and animals.

1966. The United States Navy scattering Bacillus subtilis variant Niger through the subway system in New York City. More than a million civilians are exposed when Army scientists drop light bulbs filled with bacteria in the vents.

1967. The CIA and the Department of Defense implement Project MKNAOMI, successor to MKULTRA and designed to maintain, collect and test biological and chemical weapons.

1968. CIA experiments with the possibility of poisoning drinking water by injecting chemicals into water supplies from the FDA in Washington DC

1969. Dr. Robert MacMahan Department of Defense requested the U.S. Congress, 10 million dollars to develop, within 5 to 10 years, a synthetic biological agent for which no natural immunity exists.

1970. Funding for the synthetic biological agent is obtained under HR 15090 document. The project, under the supervision of the CIA, is conducted by the Special Operations Division at Fort Detrick, facilities-secret biological weapons the U.S. military.

1970. United States intensifies its development of "ethnic weapons" (Military Review, Nov., 1970), designed to selectively target and eliminate specific ethnic groups are susceptible to genetic differences and variations in DNA.

1971. Philip Zimbardo, a psychologist at Stanford University, began an experiment in which attempts to recreate the conditions of life in prison. 24 volunteers recruited by paying $ 15 a day. The experiment quickly goes out control and must be terminated prematurely when several of the participants begin to develop severe emotional disturbance, access uncontrollable crying, disorganized thinking and anger attacks.

1972. As a result of public outcry, an advisory committee was appointed to determine whether the Tuskegee Experiment was medically justified. Within days, ordered a halt to the experiment.

1977. Senate hearings on the Commission on Health and Scientific Research confirm that 239 populated areas were contaminated with biological agents between 1949 and 1969. Some of the areas included San Francisco, Washington, DC, U.S. Midwest, Panama City, Minneapolis and St. Louis.

1978. testing the vaccine for Hepatitis B, conducted by the CDC, begin in New York, Los Angeles and San Francisco. Ads for research subjects specifically ask for promiscuous homosexual men.

1986. A report to Congress reveals that the current development of biological agents from the U.S. Government includes: modified viruses, naturally occurring toxins and agents that are altered through genetic engineering to change immunological character and prevent treatment by all existing vaccines.

1987. The Department of Defense United States admits that, despite a treaty banning research and development of biological agents, continues to operate research facilities at 127 facilities and universities around the nation.

1990. More than 1 500 black and Hispanic babies six months in Los Angeles are given a vaccine "experimental" measles vaccine that had never been licensed for use in the United States. The CDC later admits that parents were never informed that the vaccine being injected to their children was experimental.

1993. Eileen Welsome journalist reveals the names of 18 Americans who received intravenous doses of plutonium during the Cold War. From this revelation, there is growing pressure on the U.S. government to declassify all documents relating to secret experiments conducted during the Cold War. The information was finally made public in 1995.

1994. With a technique called "gene tracking," Dr. Garth Nicolson at the MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston, discovered that veterans returning from Desert Storm were infected with an altered Mycoplasma incognitus, a microbe commonly used in the production of biological weapons. Incorporated into its molecular structure is 40 percent of the AIDS protein coat, indicating that it had been made by man.

1994. Senator John D. Rockefeller issues a report revealing that for at least 50 years, the Department of Defense has used hundreds of thousands of military reserves in human experiments and for intentional exposure to hazardous substances. Materials included mustard and nerve gas, ionizing radiation, psychochemicals, hallucinogens and drugs used during the Gulf War.

1994. President Clinton assigned to an Advisory Committee, the task of investigating the allegations about the radiation experiments during the Cold War.

1995. U.S. Government admits that it had offered to war criminals and Japanese scientists who had conducted medical experiments on humans, salaries and immunity from prosecution in exchange for research data on biological warfare.

1995. In 1995, the U.S. Energy Department admitted that the Atomic Energy Commission conducted more than 430 radiation experiments from 1944 1974. More than 16,000 people were exposed to radiation, some of which were not warned of the risks to their health or not consenting to participate in the study.

1995. In its final report, submitted on October 3, 1995, the Advisory Committee of the United States Presidency, released to the public the classified information relating to the experiments that the U.S. government did during the Cold War. Concluded that in the early 60's it was common for doctors and research experiments would lead without seeking the consent of patients. Most information is known about secret experiments of the Cold War, comes from the research conducted by the Advisory Committee of President Clinton.

1995. Dr. Garth Nicolson, uncovers evidence that the biological agents used during the Gulf War had been manufactured in Houston, TX and Boca Raton, Fl and tested on prisoners in the Texas Department of Corrections.

1996. The Department of Defense admits that soldiers of Desert Storm were exposed to chemical agents.

1997. Eighty-eight members of Congress sign a letter demanding an investigation into the use of biological weapons Syndrome and Gulf War.

Pine Wood Derby Cars-star Wars Theme

Tuskegee, Alabama. EU 1932-1972.

"The United States government did something wrong-deeply and morally wrong. It was an atrocity to our commitment to integrity and equality for all our citizens ... clearly racist. "

- President Clinton's Apology to the 8 survivors of the Tuskegee Experiment, May 16, 1997 -

The Study of the Tuskegee Syphilis (1932-1972), also known as the study of syphilis Public Health Service, was a clinical study conducted around Tuskegee Alabama where 399 African Americans (over 200 people in a control group without syphilis) poor - and almost illiterate - participated in a study aimed at description of the natural history of syphilis. This study became notorious because it was conducted without due regard to the experimental subjects, and led to major changes in how patients should be protected in clinical studies. Individuals enrolled in the Tuskegee study did not give informed consent and were not informed of their diagnosis. Instead, they said they had "Bad Blood" and inviting them to free treatment at a clinic. It also offered a hot meal per day and $ 50 for death to cover the costs of his funeral.

By 1947, penicillin had become standard treatment for syphilis. Before its discovery, syphilis frequently led to the development of a multisystem disease, chronic, painful and fatal. Instead of treating syphilitic subjects with penicillin and cancel the study, the Tuskegee scientists refused to use penicillin or provide information about it, in order to continue the study on of how the disease progresses and kills the patient. Participants also were persuaded to go to other treatment programs were available to others in the area. The study continued until 1972, when a leak to the press - more than any other ethical or moral consideration - led to its cancellation. The Tuskegee study is frequently cited as one of the biggest breaches of ethics and trust between doctors and their patients, in conducting a clinical study in the United States. The study of the Tuskegee syphilis led to the development of the Belmont Report and the establishment of the National Council for Human Research and institutional review boards of Research Protocols.

The study group was formed as part of the venereal disease section of the Public Health Service of the United States (PHS). The beginning of the Tuskegee study is commonly attributed to Dr. Taliaferro Clark. Its initial purpose was to follow the natural process of untreated syphilis in a group of black men by 6 to 8 months, then continue to follow a stage in treatment. Later, Dr. Clark agreed to the deployment of deceptive practices suggested by other members of the study. Clark retired from the study one year after it began.

Dr. Eugene Dibble was the director of the John Andrew Hospital in Tuskegee Institute.

Dr Oliver C. Wenger was the director of the clinic for venereal diseases of PHS in Hot Springs, Arkansas. He was an enthusiastic promoter of the exhaustive exploration of syphilis and installation of treatment programs in the black community. At various stages of the Tuskegee experiment, Wenger was linked to the activities of Macon County, and played a critical role in the development of the first study protocols. Wenger continued to provide advice on the experiment when it entered a long period of study of the evolution of the disease without treatment. Also hide was a supporter of the experimental subjects, the study aids - feared that the disclosure may lead to uncooperative.

In 1932, Dr. Raymond H. Vonderlehr was the director of the Tuskegee experiment. He made several early physical examinations and medical procedures. Vonderlehr carried out the policies that shaped the next phase of the project. For example, it was he who decided to obtain the "consent" of subjects to perform lumbar punctures (for signs of neurosyphilis) by promoting diagnostic tests as a "special free treatment." On one occasion, Dr Wenger congratulated him for their "facilities to send letters to blacks." Vonderlehr retired as director of the Venereal Disease Section in 1943.

Dr. John R. Dr. Heller was Assistant Vonderlehr and replaced as director of the Venereal Disease Section of the PHS. The direction of the experiment by Heller coincided with the introduction of penicillin in other PHS clinics as a routine treatment for syphilis, as well as the formulation of the Nuremberg Code (With which sought to protect the rights of research subjects .) The study was exposed to the public in 1972, Heller defended the ethics of the experiment until the end.

Nurse Eunice Rivers was an African American woman who trained at Tuskegee and was recruited at the John Andrew Hospital when the study began. Dr. Vonderlehr became a strong advocate of their role. Nurse Rivers became the only person on the staff that remained in the study during the 40 years of its existence. For the decade of the 50, Rivers nurse had become a crucial element of the study-her personal knowledge of all subjects allowed the long-running monitoring is maintained.

During the Great Depression of the early 30's, were offered to the lower classes of African Americans - Who usually could not get adequate medical care, the opportunity to join the shelter of Miss Rivers. Here, patients receive free medical examinations at Tuskegee University as well as free transportation to and from the clinic, hot meals in the days of examination and treatment for minor ailments.

The experiment originally began as a study of the incidence of syphilis in Macon County's population. Subjects would be studied for a period of six to eight months, and then treated with contemporary treatments (including the salvarsan, mercury and bismuth ointments) that were moderately effective but very toxic. The initial intent of this study were public health benefit of the poor, as evidenced by the participation of Tuskegee Institute, the university founded by Booker T. African-American Washington. Its affiliated hospital gives the PHS medical facilities for study, and other predominantly African-American institutions as well as local physicians also participated. Was supposed to provide Rosenwald Philanthropic Foundation funds to pay for any treatment. The study recruited 400 black men suffering from syphilis, and 200 healthy Black men as controls.

The first critical point in the direction that would take the Tuskegee experiment in 1929, when the arrival of the Great Depression would leave the Rosenwald Foundation without the ability to afford the treatments that had initially promised. Initially, the directors of the study thought that this would be the end of the study, considering that the Foundation would no longer be able to buy medicines for the treatment phase of the study. He even prepared a final report.

In 1928, the Oslo Study had reported the pathologic manifestations of untreated syphilis in several hundred white men. This study was retrospective; The researchers collected data of patients who had contracted syphilis and had remained untreated for a while. The Tuskegee Study Group decided to save his experiment and continue, to make a prospective study equivalent to Oslo. This was not inherently wrong in itself, taking into consideration that there was nothing the investigators could do therapeutically, they could study the natural history of the disease, not cause harm to their patients. That would benefit humanity. Either way, the researchers left the marks of fair trial, when his study eventually became the longest nontherapeutic experiment performed in humans in the history of medicine.

Ethical considerations, poor from the start, began to deteriorate rapidly. Taking an example, half of the study, as a means of ensuring that the men agreed to perform a potentially dangerous diagnostic procedure (not therapeutic) as lumbar puncture, doctors sent 400 letters to patients entitled "Last chance to receive special free treatment. " The study also required that an autopsy on all subjects after his death, even when participants were never informed from this requirement. Treatment for patients was intentionally denied. Many were lied to and given placebo treatments in order to observe the fatal progression of the disease. In 1934, the first medical information was disclosed, published the first report being higher in 1936. It is important to note that this was not a secret study, as had numerous articles published throughout its history.

The second critical point in the direction of the experiment would come in 1947, at which time, penicillin had become standard treatment for syphilis. Several programs of the Public Health Service of the U.S. government were implemented to form "rapid treatment centers" in order to eradicate the disease. When several national health campaigns to eradicate venereal disease came to Macon County, Tuskegee study investigators discouraged their experimental subjects to participate in them. During the Second World War, 250 of the experimental subjects were recorded Tuskegee study in these campaigns, and were subsequently diagnosed and scheduled for treatment. Either way, the PHS was charged with discarding. The PHS representative at that time said: "So far, we are ensuring that all patients diagnosed not receive treatment. "

the end of the study, only 74 of the experimental subjects were still alive. 28 of the men had died directly because of syphilis, 100 died from complications arising from it, 40 of his wives were infected and 19 children were born suffering from congenital syphilis.

In 1966, Peter Buxtun, a PHS investigator in San Francisco, sent a letter to the director of the Division of venereal diseases to express their concerns about the morality of the experiment. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) reaffirmed the need to continue the study until completion (until subjects died and the autopsies could be performed.)

With their claims ignored Buxtun Peter went to the press. The story first appeared in the Washington Star on July 25, 1972. Then he appeared on the front page of the New York Times the next day. As a result of public outcry in 1972, an advisory committee was appointed to determine whether the study was medically unjustified and ordered a halt to the experiment. As part of the adjudication that resulted from the scandal, the surviving participants who had been affected as a result of the study and their families received $ 9 million and the promise free medical treatment.

In 1974, the National Research Act became law. It also created a commission to study and draft regulations to be met by experiments involving human participants.

The May 16, 1997, five of the eight survivors of the experiment attended a White House ceremony in which President Clinton requested a formal apology to the Tuskegee experiment participants:

"We can not remedy what is already done, but we
end the silence ... We can stop turning our eyes to another part
. We watch in the eye and finally say, on behalf of the American
people that what made the United States Government
was embarrassing and I'm sorry. "

In 1932, treatments for syphilis were relatively ineffective and had severe side effects. It was known that syphilis was particularly prevalent in poor black communities. Initially, the intention of the study was to measure the prevalence of the disease, its natural history and the true effectiveness of treatment. Medical ethics prevalent at the time, had yet to exacting standards to develop an informed consent, and doctors routinely withheld information on their health status to participants. A clinical study to evaluate the effectiveness of treatment of this terrible disease was not inherently wrong. Either way, this study exploited a vulnerable sobpoblación to answer a question that would have been beneficial to the entire population. Some argue that this was an example of racism on the part of the organizers of the study.

However, with the development of an effective and simple method for the treatment of syphilis (penicillin), and changing ethical standards, ethical and moral judgments of the experiment became absolutely indefensible. By the time the study was canceled hundreds of men had died of syphilis and many of their wives had been infected. Many children also suffered the ravages of congenital syphilis. This study has become a byword for exploitation in clinical trials and has been often compared with experiments conducted by Nazi doctor Josef Mengele.

Some sociological studies have shown that the study of the Tuskegee Syphilis has predisposed many African Americans distrust the medical authorities. The study itself is a significant factor in the low participation of African Americans in clinical studies and organ donation programs. No one could blame them.

Ohio State Computer Wallpapers

Tuskegee Experiment Project MK-ULTRA experiments Nazis

United States, 1953-1964.

For many Americans, the decade of the 50 was a gentle and quiet time. For the CIA, they were particularly active year in which they developed a lot of programs away from the public eye. None of these programs was kept a secret so absolute, as the mind control experiments conducted by the Agency, which together received the code name MK-ULTRA project.

Concerned by the alarming reports about alleged Communist success in the "intervention of the individual mind" carried a cabo en prisioneros de guerra del frente de Corea, en Abril de 1953, el director de la CIA, Allen Dulles, autorizó el Programa MK-ULTRA que mas tarde se volvería notorio por los inusuales y en ocasiones inhumanos experimentos que la CIA financiaría durante el tiempo en que se mantuvo activo. Revisando los experimentos 5 años mas tarde, un Auditor de la CIA escribió:

“Se deben tomar precauciones no solo para proteger las operaciones de fuerzas
enemigas, sino para ocultar estas actividades del público americano en general.
El conocimiento de que la Agencia esta conduciendo actividades ilícitas y poco
éticas podría tener repercusiones serias en los círculos
politicians and diplomats. "

Although many of the documents related to MKULTRA were destroyed by the CIA in 1972 under orders of then-director, Richard Helms, some records relating to the program have come to the public, and the work of historians, journalists and several U.S. congressional committees have released enough information to consider in MKULTRA as one of the most infamous examples of abuse that the Central Intelligence Agency has exercised over its own population. During operation, the MKULTRA scientists used drugs, hypnosis and electroconvulsive therapy in his quest for control techniques and mental reconditioning.

The most notorious MKULTRA experiments were the CIA's pioneering studies on the drug than a decade later would be massively consumed by the hippie generation: lysergic acid diethylamide, better known as LSD. The CIA was intrigued by the drug, and harbored hopes that the acid or a similar drug could be used to mislead and manipulate foreign leaders and people in general. Also consider that LSD had great potential to induce statements of prisoners during interrogation that the agency routinely carried out. The drug was administered to CIA employees, physicians, other government agents prostitutes, mental patients and members of the general public, in order to study their reactions, usually without the knowledge of the experimental subjects. In a detailed

book about MKULTRA and similar projects, The Search for the "Manchurian Candidate" , John Marks reports that most of the project's researchers tested the acid. In fact, the early phase of the experiments can be considered undoubtedly as the first psychedelic experience with LSD which has taken place on U.S. soil, which was experienced by none other than a CIA agent. A decade later, at 60, would be massive consumption among all a generation.

In a recent book on the subject, Evan Thomas describes Sydney Gottlieb, the scientist who led the project MKULTRA:

"Being born with a clubfoot, and a stuttering problem, the offset
this becoming a skilled dancer folk and getting a doctorate in physiology
technological California. Gottlieb was a nice man who
lived on a farm with his wife, drank only goat's milk and grew Christmas trees
then sell them to a post beside the road. "

When not busy with his farm, Dr. Gottlieb was delivering drinks LSD to test subjects, carefully recording their reactions and trying to find qualities of the drug could be useful in covert operations by the CIA.

Gottlieb was also known for torturing his victims by locking them in sensory deprivation chambers while they were under the influence of LSD, or burn therapy of psychiatric patients in which the subject listened to a recording of a statement over and over autodegradante time through headphones. Gottlieb himself took LSD several times, locked in his office, while taking copious notes of the experience.

Many of the subjects in experiments with LSD in the CIA were not aware of their participation in the project. It came to use patterns and brothels prisoners assembled and operated by the CIA, which had been previously installed dual-view mirrors throughout the property, which allow observing the effects of the drug. These activities became known as "Operation Midnight Climax." Some of the MKULTRA subjects who were informed of their participation in the project, received even more inhumane treatment: during an experiment in Kentucky, seven volunteers from black prisoners received repeated doses of LSD for 77 consecutive days. In exchange for their participation in this experiment, Dr Harris Isbell gave them a daily dose of heroin. The irony is that the work of Isbell was the alleged drug rehabilitation patients.

experiments are thought involving hundreds of people and were conducted in a wide variety of locations, among which may include universities, prisons, mental institutions and drug rehabilitation centers.

One of the most grisly experiments have been conducted by the CIA, involving the work of a Canadian psychiatrist, Dr. Ewen Cameron. In the early 50's, Cameron developed a method for treating psychotic patients based on what he called "driving psychic. " After presenting a study protocol in 1957 to the Society for the Investigation of Human Ecology, the CIA decided to support his research on behavior. The procedure was to "break current behavioral patterns of the patient through a particularly intense electroconvulsive therapy (Depatterning)" -and sometimes with repeated doses of LSD. Electroconvulsive therapy sessions using a voltage reached 30 or 40 times more than was allowed for therapeutic purposes. This was followed by "intensive repetition (16 hours a day for six or seven days)" recorded message on tape, during which time "the patient is kept in partial sensory isolation." whole process aimed to "correct the madness through the elimination of existing memories." Cameron proposed protocol the use of various drugs including curare, as part of a new technique for "inactivate the patient." Experiments were typically performed on patients who sought medical care for common problems such as anxiety disorders or postpartum depression.

The analogy of these techniques in brainwashing was obvious to the CIA, which provided Cameron the sum of $ 60,000 as funding for their experiments. Nine of Cameron's former patients, who had come to the Allan Memorial Institute at McGill University in Montreal, seeking treatment for depression, alcoholism and other psychiatric problems, filed a lawsuit against the CIA in 1979. It is known that the CIA commissioned studies Cameron threatening, taking into account that would be performed in non-US citizens. One patient, Rita Zimmerman, was subjected to 30 Electroconvulsive therapy followed by 56 days of sleep induced by barbiturates and other drugs. During the time that remained in barbiturate coma, the patient was subjected to constant repetition of recordings with various statements (Some subjects heard the same message more than 250,000 times) After the experience, I am incontinent and suffered from severe bouts of amnesia. Others suffered permanent brain damage, lost jobs and suffered deterioration in all areas of your life. The U.S. Vs Orlikow case was settled in 1988 with the sum of $ 750,000. (Cameron died in 1967). Both U.S. and Canadian government eventually indemnify each of the 127 known victims in the amount of $ 100,000.

At the same time he made his experiments, Cameron was world famous to become the first president of the World Psychiatric Association and the American and Canadian Psychiatric Associations. Ironically, Cameron participated in the Nuremberg trials as a medical advisor, only a decade before their participation in the infamous MKULTRA experiments.

Another technique used was the intravenous administration of barbiturates in the arm, and amphetamine by the same route in the opposite arm. The barbiturates were released first, and as soon as the subject began to doze, amphetamines were administered. At this point, the subject began to babble incoherently, and sometimes it was possible to ask questions and get useful answers. The treatment was ruled out because the adverse effects of the combination of drugs usually leading to death of the subject, making it impossible for subsequent interrogation. Other experiments involved the use of heroin, mescaline, psilocybin, scopolamine, marijuana, alcohol and sodium pentothal.

In 1957, an official of the U.S. Air Force, Frank Gamble, came as a volunteer for a test in the Laboratory Chemical and Bacteriological Warfare in Edgewood, Md. He had been informed that the experiment was to test gas masks and protective clothing. Instead, he and another 1000 troops were given large doses of LSD. "If I knew the risks, I never would have done." later report. "It was scandalous." He said after the test was simply forced to 'drive from Aberdeen to Delaware " while he was still under the influence of LSD. "do not even remember being there."

Gamble began to suffer episodes of amnesia, severe depression, acute anxiety and violent behavior. Attempted suicide in 1960, was removed from service and forced to retire prematurely in 1968.

At least one of the experiments probably proved fatal. On November 19, 1953, a Navy scientist and germ warfare specialist who was working on the project, named Frank Olson, received a high dose of LSD in his drink. After spending 8 days submerged in a state that many witnesses described as a depressive-paranoid, Olson jumped from the window of his hotel in New York and died instantly as a result of a fall of ten floors.

The CIA hid its involvement in the death of Olson's death, so it would take 22 years for his family to learn about the events that led to his death. When experiments with LSD the CIA was made public in mid of the 70's, the Agency was faced with fierce criticism. A Senate committee put it this way in 1975:

"Since its inception at the dawn of the decade of the 50,
until its completion in 1963, the program of surreptitious administration of LSD to taxable non-volunteers,
demonstrates the failure of the CIA to show due regard for the rights of the individual
. Despite knowing that the experiment was dangerous, the lives
subjects were put at risk and ignored. Although it was clear
the laws of the United States were being violated, the experimentation continued
.

Another time, Senator Ted Kennedy declared before Congress:

"The Director of the CIA revealed that over 30 universities and institutions
were involved in an extensive program of testing and experimentation that included
covert use of drugs in public non-
volunteers from all social levels, high and low, native Americans and foreign. Several of these tests
involving the administration of LSD to subjects without their knowledge.
At least one death-that of Dr. Olson, resulted from these activities. The Agency
it knew that these experiments had little scientific merit.
The officials responsible for monitoring were not qualified scientific observers
. "

LSD was eventually dismissed by the researchers to consider their effects were too unpredictable. Although some useful information was obtained interrogation of subjects under the influence of LSD, the most commonly observed effect was the ability to resist any form of interrogation, including those involving physical torture.

Although the most discussed aspect of MKULTRA are experiments with LSD, the project included many other unusual branches of research (149 subprojects in total) related to techniques for mind control. Researchers CIA tried to prove the usefulness of many psychic phenomena and pseudoscientific, including hypnosis, telepathy, premonitions and "remote viewing."

These experiments were not conducted simply to satisfy the curiosity of the CIA. The agency was interested in getting the weapons and techniques that will give the U.S. the lead in the global race for mind control. In accordance with this objective, the Agency spent millions of dollars in funding technical studies related to influence and manipulate the mind. A CIA memorandum, dated 1952, shows the fundamental question that sought to answer the projects mind control: "Can we get control over an individual to the point that is willing to do things against their will and even against fundamental laws of nature as self-preservation?" One of the declassified documents of MKULTRA, dated 1955, gives a sample size and the range of effort, the memo refers to the study of a wide variety of substances that alter mental functions, which would:

• "promote illogical thinking and impulsivity in the subject so much to discredit him publicly. "
•" Increasing the efficiency of mind and perception. "
• "prevent or counteract the intoxicating effects of alcohol."
• "promote the intoxicating effect of alcohol."
• "Producing signs and symptoms of recognized diseases in a reversible manner."
• "To facilitate the induction of hypnosis and increase its potential effectiveness for various purposes. "
•" Increasing the capacity of individuals to withstand privation, torture and coercion during interrogation and so-called "brain washing."
• "produce amnesia for events preceding the ingestion or occurring during it."
• "Producing shock and confusion over extended periods of time. "
•" produce temporary or permanent physical disablement, including lower limb paralysis, severe anemia, etc ... "
•" Producing high "pure" without decreased subsequent mood. "
•" Altering personality structure so that the subject's tendency to become dependent on another person will be increased. "
•" Causing mental confusion such that the subject find it difficult to sustain a lie during an interrogation. "
•" Reduce the ambition and general working efficiency in subjects who are supplied in quantities undetectable. "
•" Promote the weakness and distortion of vision or hearing faculties, preferably without permanent effects. "

Thus, intended:

•" A pill that can be surreptitiously administered in drinks, food, cigarettes or aerosol form, it is safe to use, provide a maximum amnesic effects, and practical for use by any of our agents. "
Few
MKULTRA Project objectives were achieved, but the mere realization of these experiments the CIA brought him a barrage of criticism.

Project MKULTRA experiments lasted 11 years. Either way, the MKULTRA was just the best known and most famous secret CIA project, but it was neither the first nor the last. The CIA conducted a long series of similar programs during the Cold War years. In 1960 he authorized the use of LSD in experiments in European and Asian citizens. The project code name of European citizens was evidence THIRD CHANCE. For its part, the evidence in Asians met together with the code name DERBY HAT. In 1965, the CIA, in collaboration with the Department of Defense U.S. MKSEARCH begin the project, another program that sought to develop the ability to manipulate human behavior through the use of drugs. In this particular project, the goal was the synthesis of a "truth drug" that could be used in the interrogation of potential Soviet spies. In 1966 operations began MKOFTEN Project, a program that sought to test the toxicological effects of certain drugs on humans and animals. A year later, the CIA and the Defense Department implemented the project MKNAOMI, successor to the infamous MKULTRA and designed to maintain, store and test the effects of various chemical and biological weapons. The same project MKULTRA was preceded by a similar program known as codenamed "Bluebird", which was later renamed "Project Artichoke." The initial letters of these programs (MK) was the secret codename that the CIA designated for projects related to the control of the human mind (MK referred to the English words "MIND CONTROL")

The first experiment related to the mental control on record which was carried out in 1947 as part of a U.S. Navy project called Operation CHATTER, seeking "speech-inducing drug" for use in the interrogation of " personal enemy or subversive. " The project was eventually abandoned due to drugs "tasted so bitter that it was not possible to avoid that subjects would realize" who had been drugged.

There is no evidence that the CIA (or anyone else) has managed to control the actions of a person through the techniques of "mind control" is known, were used in the MKULTRA project. The destruction of the vast majority of existing files makes a full investigation impossible.

Dr. Sydney Gottlieb always refused to discuss his work as director of the MKULTRA project until his death in 1999. In one of his few statements on the matter, said the CIA sought only promote basic research in the broad field of behavioral sciences. After his retirement from the Agency in 1973, returned to school, he practiced pathology for 19 years and worked with cancer patients and infected with the AIDS virus. He once claimed to have spent the years since he left the CIA "trying to be on the side of angels instead of demons."

Removing Cinderella Extensions

Human Radiation Experiments

Eastern Europe, 1939-1945.

Freezing experiments.

The freezing and hypothermia experiments were conducted by the Nazi party high command. The experiments were carried out on humans and were aimed to simulate the conditions experienced German troops on the Eastern front. The German soldiers were ill prepared to weather conditions being experienced in the field of battle. In this way, thousands of them died from the effects of freezing or were ineligible for combat because of the injuries that caused them cold.

Experiments were conducted under the supervision of Dr. Sigmund Rascher at Birkenau concentration camp, Dachau and Aushcwitz. Dr. Rascher reported their findings directly to Himmler, Commander in Chief of the infamous SS. Dr Rascher later published the results of their experiments on the freezing at a medical conference held in 1942, entitled "Medical problems arising from sea and winter."

The freezing experiments were divided into two parts. First, it sought to establish how much time was needed to lower body temperature to a degree sufficient to cause death. Second, analyzing the most efficient ways to resuscitate the victim of frostbite.

The two main methods used to cool the victim, the person were placed in a tub of ice water or expose the victim naked in freezing temperatures outside.

The method of the tub of ice water proved to be the fastest way to lower body temperature. The selection of subjects was made between Jews and Russian youth. In preparation for the experiment, were stripped. Later I was introduced a rectal thermometer, which would be used to record drops in temperature during the test. The thermometer was held in place by a expandable metal ring which was adjusted to open inside the rectum. The victim was then placed in a tub of ice water and began to freeze. It is known that most of the victims lost consciousness and eventually died when body temperature fell to 25 ° C.

Two Russian men were seen by a doctor of the Birkenau camp. The two men were very strong, and the SS doctor was impressed by the time the Russians were able to withstand the cold before losing consciousness. The doctor who observed this, he asked the director of the experiment that will bring the two men from the tank. The director did not allow, and instead made to increase the temperature a few degrees to prolong the pain of the victims. The two died after a painful and prolonged stay in the tank.

second how to freeze a victim was to tie her naked to a pole and left in the open. The extreme winters of Auschwitz made it the natural location to conduct these experiments.

resuscitation and heating experiments were just as cruel and painful than freezing experiments.

solar lamp.

The victims were placed under sun lamps which produced enough heat to burn the skin. One young homosexual victim was repeatedly brought into unconsciousness by freezing methods, only to immediately be raised through the lamps. He died a week after being subjected to numerous similar tests. Irrigation

internal.

frozen The victim was treated in such a resuscitation that was introduced into the stomach, gallbladder and intestines of the patient, limits water heated to near boiling point. Apparently, all the victims subjected to this "treatment" had been killed because of this.

hot bath.

The person was placed in hot water and the temperature was increased slowly. This method proved to be the most useful for resuscitation of victims. Either way, many subjects died from shock caused by heating too fast.

Heating by means of body heat.

Dr Heinrich Himmler Rascher suggested the use of women to warm the frozen men. He suggested that the victim and a woman copulate. This experiment occurred with some success. Either way, it was not as successful as the hot bath method.



genetic experiments.

Achieving the purification of the Nordic or Aryan Race was the most important goal of the Nazis. Men with blond hair and blue eyes were allegedly intended to be the only race. Blacks, Latinos, Jews, Gypsies and homosexuals and anyone else who did not fit into the racial requirements should be excluded from future society through genocide. Hitler and the German High Command drew up a list of rules that the Nazis were observed. The new rule requires that all SS officers to submit to medical examinations before marriage, in order to ensure racial purity. The rules for marriage were incredibly complex. Thousands of applications were rejected marriage. If these rules were broken, this could lead to the death penalty.

and Dr Sigmund Rascher his wife could see for themselves what happened to those who do not follow marriage rules of the Nazi regime. Rascher's wife was barren. They were not illegally married, but took a couple of kids. Were subsequently investigated by the Gestapo and executed for the crime.

As soon as the Nazi Party came to power, the groups were pressured scientists to conduct research about racial purity and the experiments began. First, the Party's Propaganda needed to prove that all other races were inferior. Anthropometric studies were performed in which blood tests were made and measurements of skulls, eyes and noses. Through such tests, is how it was determined that the Gypsies had different blood types that leaned toward criminal behavior. "Findings" like they were described in all other races except the race of the Nazis themselves.

hundreds of experiments were performed after genetic activities in the concentration camps began. The experiments were divided into two groups. On one side it looked for ways to refine the breed, and secondly, to determine the cause of the genetic defects that were observed.

Dr Josef Mengele, the "Angel of Death."

Research Dr Mengele on twins and Gypsies exemplifies the goal of genetic studies of the Nazi Regime. Josef Mengele, the infamous doctor of Auschwitz concentration camp was known as the "Angel of Death." He was at every selection when the new human cargo transported on trains arriving at Auschwitz. After the victims were unloaded from trains, stripped naked and divided into men, women and children, Dr. Mengele walked towards them and carefully inspected. Most of the prisoners were sent directly to the gas chambers and others were sent to the countryside to meet with forced labor. The twins, dwarfs and other subjects with unique physical characteristics were selected to be assigned to the blocks where the experiments were performed. In many ways, those who were killed immediately in the gas chambers, ran a better fate than those selected to participate in experiments, they had no idea of \u200b\u200bthe horrors that awaited them.


experiments on twins.

While the twins escaped immediate execution, was sentenced to a fate far more cruel. Mengele devoted a special wing for the accommodation of their twins, and other subjects with physical and obvious deformities. This area was known by the nickname of "zoo", while participants in the experiments twins were known as "Mengele's children." Of all the experimental subjects, the twins were Mengele's favorite, so initially received preferential treatment was to keep his hair and clothes as well as receiving extra food rations. The guards had strict orders not to abuse children and should respond with their lives if any of the children got sick or died. Mengele used to get angry if one of the twins came to die. Mengele's children were also excluded from abuse and forced labor in order to preserve health. Either way, Mengele not acting on humanitarian grounds, but by their desire for their research specimens remained healthy until their turn to participate in their experiments. As with other prisoners in the camp, Mengele's imagination knew no bounds when it came to devising new physical torments for his victims.

The twins were examined from head to toe. They took exact measurements of each body part. Dr. Mengele demanded specific and careful reviews. If any detail was beyond the record, usually a prison doctor would be punished. Mengele injected blood from one twin to another and registered the reactions, which invariably consisted of excruciating headache and fever that lasted for several days. In order to determine if the eye color could be altered genetically, injected dye solutions in the eyes of several subjects. This invariably led to painful infections and sometimes blindness. If any of these twins died, Mengele ordered that his eyes were removed at autopsy and then be placed on the walls of his office. The younger children were placed in solitary confinement and subjected to a wide variety of stimuli in order to observe their reactions. We know that many twins were castrated or sterilized. Others were subjected to vivisection in which Mengele did not use any anesthetic agent. Also came to infectious agents injected intravenously to see how much time passed before the subject succumbed to a variety of diseases.

After all the necessary information was collected, the twins were killed with a single injection of chloroform applied directly to the heart. They took every precaution for the twins died at the same time. The twins were then dissected and their organs were sent to research centers.

prison doctor reported the fate of two Hungarian twins who arrived at Auschwitz in late 1943. Dr. Mengele was at the time of selection, as was his custom. The train arrived in the early hours of the morning. We found three pairs of twins, who were taken to block field for the experiments. Dr. Mengele ordered the Hungarian twins were taken to the exam room. Twins 18 were described as "extremely athletic and handsome." They had long hair and body hair and were allowed to keep it for the first few weeks. The twins were showered and taken back to bare the exam room. These began in the head. Each of the parties to their heads were measured and examined. These studies took days. They were then examined by mass X-ray. The next part of the review involved the placement of metal tubes forcibly inserted in their nasal passages to your lungs. After reaching this goal, were ventilated with a gas that caused them coughing so severe that the use of gas had to be suspended. The sputum from the lungs was collected and subjected to various studies.

The twins were then photographed for several days. The purpose of the photographs was to show patterns of hair growth. Doctors forced the twins to stand, bend, kneel and adopt all sorts of positions in order to meet the requirements of the photographs. For example, were forced to remain with their arms raised to armpit hair could be photographed.

After the pictures were completed, were awakened very early one morning, and taken to a room with several tables and a hot tub. Were forced to stay in the tub until they fainted because of the increasing heat. They were then subjected to the tables where their hair was shaved observing special care to keep the root intact. The same process was repeated several times until it collected enough hair. After this, were completely without hair and stripped of all traces of hair and body hair. The twins were then again extensively photographed without hair.

On another occasion, the twins received two liters of a solution determined not to be used as an enema, which caused them great pain and discomfort. On different days, the twins were subjected to a examination table and straight were prolapsed by force, with the purpose of conducting an extensive review of the lower gastrointestinal tract. This procedure was performed without using any kind of anesthesia. The screams of the girls were so strong that Dr Mengele ordered them to be muzzled. The next day they were subjected to a painful and humiliating urological review, in which samples were obtained from holders of the kidneys, prostates and testes. Several semen samples were obtained by means of force in the course of two days.

After three weeks of these heinous medical examinations, were taken to the laboratory dissection. With the intervention of two doctors, each twin was simultaneously injected into the heart, killing them instantly. Were dissected and their organs were sent to the Institute of Biological Racial and Evolutionary Research in Berlin.

is clear that, despite the express purpose for which was sent to Auschwitz, Mengele's experiments had no relation to real scientific research, and were instead the result of the ambition of a man and his fervent adherence to the Nazi vision of Aryan supremacy.

Josef Mengele was never tried in the Nuremberg trials. He escaped from Auschwitz on January 17, 1945 as Russian troops crossed the German Reich dying to Berlin. During the first years after the war, Mengele stayed hidden in a farm near his hometown of Gunzburg. After assuming a false identity, he worked as a farmer while kept informed through of secret contacts. Incredibly, originally housed the hope of reviving his career and his research, but soon realized that the allies would not allow a war criminal notable as, resume the life he had before the war, without pay for the crimes he committed during it. Mengele decided he could not stay longer in Europe so he escaped to Argentina in an Italian maritime cargo.

Mengele would spend the next thirty years of his life on the run from international authorities. While receiving assistance and shelter neo-Nazi network in Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil, the West German government required completion the "Angel of Death" in court.

While some persecutors of Nazi war criminals like Simon Wiesenthal, continued to press for the capture and execution of Mengele, the Nazi doctor seemed to stay off the radar of most international governments.

However, all efforts for his capture were arrested when the May 31, 1985, West German police raided the house of Hans Sedlmeier, lifelong friend of Mengele and his main contact in Europe. Police seized several letters from Mengele and other German exiles who lived with him in Brazil. Within a week, the Brazilian police identified families who hid Mengele, and through them, it was possible to identify the tomb where his remains were buried after he died in a drowning accident in 1979. Forensic examinations performed on the skeletal remains confirmed that the body was indeed that of Josef Mengele.

The number of subjects in their research Mengele killed remains unknown.

Other experiments Nazis.

Experimentation on high altitudes.

In early 1942, several prisoners of Dachau concentration camp were tortured in order for the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) might find the capacity the human body to adapt and survive at high altitudes. A low-pressure chamber was used to simulate weather conditions at an altitude of more than 68,000 feet. Subjects were required to enter the chamber and the reactions of their bodies were studied.

Malaria experimentation.

From February 1942 until April 1945, numerous experiments were performed at the Dachau concentration camp in order to investigate immunization in the treatment of Malaria. Several inmates in good healthy, were infected by mosquitoes or by injecting extracts of the mucous gladulas mosquitoes. After having contracted malaria the subjects were tested with various drugs to test their effectiveness. In these experiments, subjects used no more than a thousand volunteers, most of whom died.

Experimentation on Mustard Gas.

On several occasions between September 1939 and April 1945, experiments were conducted in the camps of Sachsenhausen and Natzweiler, in order to investigate the most effective treatment to treat wounds caused by Lost gas, a poison commonly known as mustard gas. The wounds were inflicted on medical subjects by conductors of the experiment. Some of them died as a result of exposure to poison.



Sulfonamide experiments.

From July 1942 until September 1943, experiments were conducted at the Ravensbrück concentration camp to investigate the effectiveness of the sulfonamide. Inflicted wounds in experimental subjects were infected with esptreptococos, gas gangrene and tetanus. The blood flow was interrupted by tying the blood vessels surrounding the wound to create a condition similar to that seen in the battlefields. Infection was aggravated by the introduction of woody debris or dirt in the wound. Subsequently, the infection was treated with sulfonamide and other drugs in order to determine their effectiveness. Some subjects died as a result of these experiments.

Regeneration of bone, nerves and muscles and bone transplants.

From September 1942 to December 1943, experiments were performed in the concentration camp Ravensbrückcon order to study the regeneration of bone, muscle and nerve, and bone transplantation from one person to another. Sections of bones, muscles and nerves were removed from the subjects.

experiments seawater.

From July 1944 until September 1944, we performed in the Dachau camp in order to test various methods to purify sea water. Some of the participating subjects were deprived of all food and were provided only chemically processed sea water.

Experiments on Hepatitis epidemic.

From June 1943 until January 1945, experiments were conducted in the camps of Sachsenhausen and Natzweiler to investigate the causes of epidemic hepatitis and the use of inoculations for treatment. Experimental subjects were deliberately infected, and some died as a result of the experiments.




Experiments on sterilization.

The experiments were carried out from March 1941 to January 1945 in the camps at Auschwitz and Ravensbrück. The purpose of these experiments was to develop a method that was able to sterilize millions of people in the least amount of time and with minimal effort. These experiments were conducted using surgical procedures, X rays and various types of drugs. Thousands of victims were sterilized (Regardless of their experimentation in this regard, the Nazi government sterilized around 400,000 individuals as part of their health and control methods)

Experiments on Tifo.

These experiments were conducted in the camps of Buchenwald and Natzweiler from December 1941 to February 1945. Investigated the efficacy of some vaccines. At Buchenwald numerous healthy inmates were deliberately infected with typhus bacteria. Over 90% of the victims died as a result. Other healthy inmates were used to test the effectiveness of different spotted fever vaccines and other chemicals. In the course of these experiments, 75% of the subjects selected were vaccinated with any vaccine or fed any of the chemicals after being infected with typhus bacteria after a period of 3 or 4 weeks. The remaining 25% was infected without any previous protection in order to test the effectiveness of vaccines and chemicals used. As a result, hundreds of people died. Also performed experiments with yellow fever, smallpox, cholera and diphtheria. Similar experiments were performed in the concentration camp Natzweiler.

Experiments with poison.

Between December 1943 and October 1944 experiments were conducted at the Buchenwald concentration camp to investigate the effects of various types of poisons in humans. The poisons were secretly administered to experimental subjects in their food ration. The victims died from the poison or were killed immediately to allow autopsies. Around September 1944, some experimental subjects received the bullet holes were poisoned and tortured.

Experiments firebombs.

From November 1943 until January 1944, experiments were performed in the concentration camp at Buchenwald to test the effect of various pharmaceutical preparations on phosphorus burns. These burns were inflicted on experimental subject material of phosphorus incendiary bombs.

Cakes Accept Lonestar Cards

United States, 1944-1974.

Under the pretext of preparing the United States of a possible Soviet nuclear attack during the Cold War, thousands of U.S. citizens became victims of more than 4,000 classified experiments conducted by the Atomic Energy Commission and other government agencies as the Department of Defense, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service (now the CDC), National Institutes of Health, the Veterans Administration, the CIA and NASA.

Millions of people were exposed to radioactive fallout resulting from the detonation of more than 200 atmospheric and underground nuclear weapons, as well as hundreds of secret radiation releases to the environment. More than 200,000 veterans who worked at the site of nuclear detonations in Nevada during the late 50's and 60 were particularly vulnerable to the fallout.

were also affected thousands of residents living in small towns in Nevada, Utah, Colorado and New Mexico. These residents (as well as animal populations) had the worst cumulative effects of radiation due to rain and polluted environment.

One of the declassified documents of the Department of Energy of the United States dating from the late 50's, described the population surrounding the nuclear test site in Nevada as a "low-use segment of the population."

nuclear arms race in full, doctors and government scientists were in charge of making people believe that exposure to small doses of radiation had no harmful effect. Some officials even tried to convince people that "a little radiation is good for health." The knowledge that radiation from exposure to radioactive fallout substantially increased risk of cancer, heart disease, neurological disorders, diseases immune system abnormalities reproductive birth defects and genetic mutations was totally ignored. The maximum range of damage inflicted on the U.S. population during the years of the Cold War remains unknown.

A secret document from the Atomic Energy Commission, dated April 17, 1947, reveals that doctors were aware of the risks to human health from radiation exposure, but simply ignored them. Titled "Medical Experiments in Humans" , the memorandum states:

"No document relating to human experimentation
should be released because this can result in an adverse effect on public
or result in legal proceedings. Documents covering such work field
should be classified as "secret."

Some residents testified that the officers of the Public Health Service told them that his "neurosis" of the fallout would be the only thing that would cause cancer, particularly if they were women. Some women with severe disease due to radiation, hair loss and severe skin burns were diagnosed in hospitals as "neurotic." Other women seriously ill were diagnosed with "housewife syndrome." The Department of Atomic Energy had a habit of waiting for the wind blowing toward Utah (rather than on the direction of Los Angeles, California or Las Vegas, Nevada) to test its nuclear weapons.

Only recently, with the declassification of secret documents, have begun to reveal details on inhuman radiation studies that were conducted during the Cold War years between 1944 and 1974. The story began to come to light when in 1993, we have identified the names of 18 American citizens who secretly received intravenous injections of 5 micrograms plutonium, a key ingredient in making atomic weapons and one of the most toxic substances known to man. The victims we administered while hospitalized at Oak Ridge Hospital in Tennessee, the University of Rochester in New York, the University of Chicago and University of California at San Francisco. In the final report of President Clinton's Advisory Committee on human radiation experiments, they can read passages like the following:

"Between April and December 1945, three terminally ill cancer patients
whose codenames are CHI-1, 2 and 3 received injections
of plutonium. At least two and possibly three were injected into the
Billings Hospital of the University of Chicago. The doses administered to the subject
CHI-2 and CHI-3 were the highest doses
any of the 18 subjects, about 95 micrograms. Either way, the amount of injected material
was still below that which would be expected
the onset of acute effects. Either way, all three patients were
seriously ill and at least two of them died within ten months after injection
. The selection of subjects that seriously ill
was an intentional strategy to contain the potential risks, this
indicated in reports of CHI-1 and CHI-2, dated 1946: "It
needed some human studies to determine how to apply information obtained
animals to human problems. For this reason, selected
two people with low life expectancy. It was considered that the injection of plutonium
not substantially alter the course of their disease
not present a risk. " remains a mystery why the subject
CHI-3 was not included in this report."

was also public knowledge, the intravenous administration of Uranium in six patients seriously ill, six of whom were hospitalized at the University of Rochester and eleven in the General Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts. Some but not all, of these patients were terminally ill. This harrowing story of journalist Eileen Welsome (who later won the Pulitzer Prize) unleashed a storm of protests to press the Secretary of the Department of Energy, Hazel O'Leary, declassified secret files and documents relating to experiments conducted during the War Cold.
The extremely dangerous plutonium experiment was conducted under the auspices of the Manhattan Project, which brought together the talents of distinguished scientists to develop and test the atomic bomb. The secret purpose of these experiments was to establish occupational safety standards for all workers who produce plutonium and other radioactive elements for the project.

Some of the experiments classified the U.S. government did during the Cold War include:

* The exhibition of more than 100 Alaskan villagers to radioactive iodine during the 60's.

* The administration of radioactive iron and calcium in food rations of 49 adolescents with mental retardation admitted in Government institutions. Iron was administered in its cereals from 1946 to 1954. They informed the parents that their children receive a special diet "strengthened."

* The exhibition of approximately 800 pregnant women in late 40 to radioactive iron, in order to determine the speed with which the substance crossing the placenta, and the effects of radiation on the fetus . They told the women that they were being administered were vitamin supplements.

* The intravenous injection of radioactive iodine in 7 newborns (six of whom were African Americans)

* The exposure of the testicles of more than 100 prisoners to radiation doses Cancer-causing. This experiment lasted until the early 70's.

* The exhibition of over 200 cancer patients with high levels of radiation resulting from cesium and cobalt. Atomic Energy Commission finally stopped this experiment in 1974,.

* The administration of radioactive material to San Francisco psychiatric patients and prisoners of San Quentin Prison.

* The mass administration of radiation in cancer patients hospitalized at Cincinnati General Hospital, Baylor College in Houston, Memorial Sloan-Kettering in New York and the Naval Hospital in Bethesda, during the decades of 50 and 60. The experiment provided information concerning how a nuclear attack would affect troops in combat.

* The exhibition of 29 patients, some with rheumatoid arthritis, to total body irradiation (with doses of 100 to 300 rads) for military use different information. This was conducted by the University of California Hospital in San Francisco.

In 1995, the U.S. Energy Department admitted that the Atomic Energy Commission conducted more than 430 radiation experiments from 1944 to 1974. More than 16,000 people were exposed to radiation, some of which were not warned of the risks to their health or not consenting to participate in the study.

These experiments were designed to help scientists understand the risks to human health from nuclear war and fallout. Because the programs aimed at making nuclear weapons are classed as a whole, these experiments were also classified as secret files and refused access to any information relating to them, under the pretext of protecting "national security."

Surprisingly, these studies were made illegal in the most prestigious medical institutions and schools the country, including the University of Chicago, Washington University, Tecnológico de Massachusetts, Vanderbilt University in Nashville among others.

addition to these experiments, uranium miners in Arizona, Utah, Colorado and New Mexico, contracted by the Atomic Energy Commission, were exposed to radioactive fallout from the decade of the 40 to the 60's. Although scientists and epidemiologists from the Commission knew that the dust in these poorly ventilated mines was contaminated with radon could easily cause fatal lung cancer, this information was never communicated to the miners, many of whom were Native Americans. As a result, many miners died prematurely of lung cancer.

In 1954, American scientists conducted research on exposure to radioactive fallout in the Marshall Islands citizens, after the Castle Bravo nuclear test. The blasts occurred in the airspace of Rongelap Atoll and residents were exposed to serious levels of radiation (above 180 rads) 236 people were exposed, some of whom developed severe disease following radiation. At least one died. The long-term effects included birth defects and thyroid problems.

The decision to detonate nuclear weapons in these particular atmospheric conditions (wind was known that the fallout would lead to the Marshall Islands), was taken by Dr Andy C. Graves, scientific director of Operation Castle.

In another incident, at the beginning of the Cold War, researchers from the United States, United Kingdom and Australia sought to determine the amount of fallout needed to make the planet uninhabitable. They considered that atmospheric nuclear testing had provided the opportunity to investigate. These tests were dispersed radioactive contamination across the entire planet, and review human remains may reveal how easily he had absorbed this pollution, and therefore that much damage was caused. Of particular interest was the presence of strontium-90 in bone. The primary objective of the research were children, as they thought they had a greater opportunity to absorb new pollutants.

As a result of this conclusion, researchers initiated a program to collect human remains around the world, with particular emphasis on children's remains. The bones were cremated and the ashes analyzed for radioisotopes. This project was kept secret, mainly because it would result a disaster in public opinion as a result, parents were not informed of what was being done with the remains of their relatives. These activities are known collectively as Project Sunshine. "

In January 1994, President Clinton commissioned an Advisory Committee, the task of investigating the allegations about the radiation experiments. In its final report (the full text can be found at the following Internet address: http://www.eh.doe.gov/ohre/roadmap/achre/report.html ), submitted on October 3, 1995, the Committee concluded that in the early 60's it was common for physicians would lead experiments and investigations without seeking the consent of patients. Most information is known about the secret experiments of the Cold War, comes from the Research Advisory Committee by President Clinton. This report was also published in 1996 by Oxford Press, with the title "Human Radiation Experiments."

Although the Committee considered in depth experiments, there was no attempt to redress the harm inflicted on the subjects who participated in the experiments. In many cases, the names and records of the patients were not already available, so there was no way to establish how many experiments were conducted, where they took place and the government sponsored agencies. The Department of Health and Human Services, the largest government sponsor of research, has ruled since the records relating to the experiments performed decades ago.

King Kamehameha, Quotes

Zimbardo Experiment

Stanford University, USA 1971.

"That's what happens when you put good people in an evil place? Can humanity overcome evil or is this the one that succeeds? These are some of the questions we try to respond in a dramatic simulation of prison life, conducted in the summer of 1971 at Stanford University. "

- Extract from the Official Site Zimbardo Experiment -

The experiment Stanford Prison was a milestone in the psychological study of human response to captivity, in particular, to the real conditions of life in prison and the effects of the imposition of social roles on behavior. Was conducted in 1971 by a group of researchers led by Philip Zimbardo of Stanford University. Participants voluntarily assume the roles of guards and prisoners and lived in a simulated prison. Either way, the experiment quickly got out control and had to be aborted prematurely.

Some ethical concerns surrounding the famous experiment, make a series of matches to the Milgram Experiment, which was conducted at Yale University in 1963 by Stanley Milgram, a former schoolmate of Zimbardo.

The study was sponsored by the United States Navy, in order to study the possible conflicts in its prison system. Participants were recruited through an advertisement in a newspaper that were given the sum of $ 15 per day as a "simulated prison" for a period of two weeks. Of the 70 people who answered the call, Zimbardo and his team selected the 24 that appeared to be the most healthy and psychologically stable. These participants were predominantly middle class white men. All were college students.

"More than 70 people who responded to our call
were subjected to diagnostic interviews and personality tests, in order to eliminate
candidates with psychological problems, medical disabilities or
criminal history or substance abuse drugs. In the end, we are left with a sample of 24 students universaitarios
U.S. and Canada who were
in the Stanford area and wanted to earn $ 15 day
participate in the study. In all dimensions we were able to examine and observe,
reacted normally. "

The group of 24 men was divided in half by a random drawing. Thus, two groups were comprised of the "prisoners" and "guards". The prisoners later claimed to have believed that the guards were chosen because of their greater physical size, but they were chosen by simple flight of a coin and there was no objective difference in height between the two groups.

The same prison was installed in the basement of the Psychology Department at Stanford. A wizard of the experiment was appointed "mayor" and Zimbardo assumed the role of "superintendent."

Zimbardo set up a series of specific conditions of the experiment, with the aim of creating confusion and depersonalization in the participants.

The guards were given cardboard clubs and a uniform of khaki military style, they had chosen themselves in a local military supplement. They were also given sunglasses in order to prevent eye contact. Unlike the prisoners, the guards had to work in shifts and go home during the relay. Despite this, many would later to assist, even without extra pay.

The prisoners were dressed in robes of muslin (no underwear) and rubber sandals, which, according to Zimbardo, force them to take "physical postures unfamiliar" and will create discomfort, thus helping to create disorientation. Were assigned by a number instead of by name. These numbers were recorded in their uniforms, and the prisoners were forced to wear women's nylon stockings on his head, to simulate being shaved in the style of military basic training. Additionally, they used a small chain around their ankles as a "constant reminder" of his imprisonment and oppression.

"Even when prisoners were asleep,
not be able to escape the oppressive atmosphere. When a prisoner
flips the other side of the bed, the chain would hit his other ankle, and I wake up, reminding
still in prison, and was only able to escape from there
their dreams. "

The day before the experiment began, the guards attended a brief orientation meeting, but were not provided a formal pattern of behavior, except the indication of not using physical violence. They said it was his responsibility to the conduct of the prison, and could perform the way they wanted. Zimbardo

the guards gave them the following recommendations at the meeting:

"prisoners can create feelings of boredom and a feeling of fear
to some degree. Can create the notion of arbitrariness that their
lives are completely controlled by you, by the system, and not
have no privacy ... We will take away their individuality in various ways
. In general, what all this is leading to a feeling of helplessness. This is the result
that in this situation, we have all the power and
they have none. "

Participants who were selected to assume the role of prisoners, were simply told to wait in their homes to" receive the call " the day the experiment began. Without any other warning, they "raised objections" for armed robbery and were arrested by real police in Palo Alto, which cooperated in this part of the experiment.

the prisoners were subjected complete a police interrogation, which included taking fingerprints and photo signing and reading of their rights. After that, were transported to the mock prison where they were stripped naked for a review. They were also given their new identities. All the way to the prison, prisoners were kept blindfolded.

The experiment quickly got out of control. The prisoners suffered-and accepted-a sadistic and humiliating treatment by the guards, and by the end, many showed severe emotional disturbances.

After a first day passed without major incident, a riot broke out on day two. The guards were voluntary overtime and worked together to suppress the revolt, without supervision research staff. After this point, the guards tried to divide the prisoners and put them against each other, placing a cell for the "good" and another "bad", in order to make them believe that there were "informers" between their ranks. This tactic proved very effective, and from that point, there were no more large-scale rebellions. According to ex-offenders interviewed by Zimbardo, a similar tactic was used successfully in the United States prisons.

"ex-convicts Our consultants told us later that
a similar tactic is used by prison guards actual breaking partnerships
prisoners. Racism, for example, is used to make blacks, Chicanos and Anglos
, one against the other. The fact is that in a real prison,
the greatest threat to any prisoner's life comes from his own
peers. "

The" counts "of prisoners, who had initially been implemented to help them become familiar with their numbers identity, degenerated into traumatic experiences of hours, in which the guards tormented the prisoners and punishment applied including long sessions of physical exertion.

Conditions hygiene of the prison very soon made it uninhabitable. The right to use the toilet became a privilege that could, and very often was denied. Some prisoners were forced to clean toilets using nothing but their own hands. The mattresses were removed from the cell for the "bad", and the prisoners were forced to sleep on the concrete floor without clothing. Food was also frequently denied as a method of punishment. Prisoners endured forced nudity and even homosexual acts of humiliation.

Zimbardo himself has cited his growing absorption of the experiment, in which participated actively. In the fourth day, and the guards responded to the rumor of an escape plan, trying to move the experiment to a real cell the local Police Department, under the pretext that this was more "secure." The Police Department refused and withdrew Zimbardo furious at the lack of cooperation.

As the experiment progressed, several of the guards were showing increasingly sadistic behavior, particularly at night, when they thought they were off camera. The researchers said that about a third of the guards showed "genuine" sadistic tendencies. Most of the guards were upset by the fact that the experiment was terminated prematurely.

prisoners for their part, began to show severe emotional disorders. One of the prisoners developed a psychosomatic rash all over his body when he learned that his "parole" had been rejected (Zimbardo rejected the belief that the prisoner was just trying to get out of prison by faking an illness). Were common among the prisoners, uncontrollable crying and disorganized thinking. Two of the prisoners suffered such severe trauma that the experiment was quickly removed and replaced by new entrants.

"within 36 hours after onset the experiment, Prisoner # 8612
began to suffer severe emotional disturbance, disorganized thinking, uncontrollable crying and rage
. Despite all this, we initially thought that the prisoner
was faking his condition in order to be released.
During the next count, Prisoner # 8612 told other prisoners
"We can not leave, we can not renounce." That statement gave a chilling message
and increased the feeling of captivity among the prisoners.
After that, the prisoner # 8612 began acting strangely, yelling, cursing
and angry in a seemingly out of control. It took us a while to convince
was really suffering and that we should release him. "

replaced one of the prisoners, prisoner # 416, was horrified by the treatment of the guards and decided to start a hunger strike in protest. As a result, was confined to an isolation cell for three hours. During this time, was forced to hold food that had been refusing food. The other prisoners saw him as a troublemaker. To exploit this feeling, the guards gave the prisoners a choice: Prisoners could give up their blankets and free the prisoner 416, or leave the confinement cell. All the prisoners decided keep their blankets. Later, Zimbardo speaking for the # 416 back to his cell. Some time later, the subject was known within the experiment with the nickname of "prisoner # 416" said:

"I started to feel I was losing my identity. Do not think there was
an experiment or a simulation, because it was a real prison
conducted by psychologists rather than by the state. I started to feel my
identity, the person who had volunteered as a participant noted
the experiment was far from me. I was 416.
I was really my number. "

Zimbardo decided to end his experiment early when Christina Maslach, a graduate student who had been hired by the staff conductor of the experiment for interviews, complained of the inhumane conditions of "jail." Zimbardo has noted that the 50 people outside the experiment that had access to the "prison", she was the only one who questioned the morality of the experiment. After only six days after the originally scheduled two weeks, the experiment was terminated.

has been stated that experiment results demonstrate the impressionability and obedience of the people when they are provided social and institutional support. It has also been used to illustrate the theory of cognitive dissonance and the power of authority.

In psychology, it is said that the experiment results support the theory that in certain situations, situational attributions of behavior over the attributions. In other words, it seems, the more influential position in the participants' behavior than any inherent aspect of their individual personalities. Thus, it is consistent with the findings of the also famous Milgram experiment, in which ordinary people ordered the implementation of what they thought were electric shocks fatal, an actor hired by the investigators to impersonate the victim role.

By coincidence, shortly after the study was completed, bloody riots took place both in San Quentin prison like Attica prison. Zimbardo then reported the findings of their experiment in the Judicial Committee of the United States.

The experiment was widely criticized as unethical and scientifically. The criticisms included the questioning of Erich Fromm, who said the results of the experiment could not be generalized to the rest of the population.

Because the study was entering a experimental field was impossible to keep traditional scientific controls. Zimbardo was not merely a neutral observer, but influenced the direction of the experiment by assuming the role of "superintendent." The findings and observations from the experiment were rather anecdotal and subjective, and the experiment would be very difficult to replicate by other researchers.

Some critics of the experiment, participants claim that their behavior based on what they thought was expected of them, or modeled on the stereotypes they already had about how prisoners should behave and guards inside a prison. In other words, participants were only playing a role. In response, Zimbardo said that even if participants had played a role at the beginning, they internalized this role while the experiment development.

The experiment was also criticized on the basis of ecological validity. Many of the conditions imposed on the experiment were arbitrary and could not be correlated with the actual conditions of a prison, including blindfolding the newly arrived prisoners, forced to wear women's clothing, inability to wear underwear or peek through the windows as well as not allowing them to use their names. Zimbardo said that the prison is confusing and dehumanizing, and it was necessary to implement these procedures for placing prisoners in a state of mind to the objects of study. Either way, it is difficult to establish how similar were the conditions of the experiment to a real prison. The methods of the experiment would be difficult to replicate so that others might try.

Some have said that the study was too deterministic: the reports show significant differences in the cruelty of the guards. The worst displays of violence and cruelty came from one of the guards, known by the nickname "John Wayne", but other guards were docile and did favors for the prisoners. Zimbardo made no attempt to explain these differences.

Finally, the sample was too small, with only 24 participants interacting by a short period of time.

Haslam and Reicher (2003), psychologists at the University of Exeter and the University of Saint Andrew, conducted a partial replica of the experiment in collaboration with the BBC, which broadcast scenes from the study as part of a TV show called "The Experiment." Their findings and conclusions were very different from those of Zimbardo. Even though its procedures were not an exact replica of the procedures used by Zimbardo, their study can raise questions about the generalizability of the findings of Experiment Stanford Prison.

Despite all this, Zimbardo Experiment has an official website, describing it as "a classic study on the psychology of imprisonment."